What You Should Know About Written English


This site presents a list of terms that someone should know as he or she begins a serious study of scientific writing. Many terms in this list come from E. D. Hirsch's book Cultural Literacy. It is not necessary that you have a "textbook definition" of each term, but you should have a working knowledge of these terms so that you can understand sentences in which these terms are used. Should you not have such an understanding of a term, please consult The Craft of Scientific Writing or the link provided. To test your command of terms in written English, perform the following exercise.





ad hominem:

logical fallacy in which the writer attacks the person who presents the issue rather than deal logically with the issue itself.



bandwagon:

logical fallacy in which the writer uses the argument that because everyone believes in something, it must be true.



begging the question:

logical fallacy in which the writer presents an assertion that simply restates the point just made ("Exposure to asbestos is carcinogenic because it causes cancer").



clause:

a group of words that contains a subject and verb. There are two types of clauses: independent and dependent (sometimes called subordinate). In discussing aspects of language, such as sentence variety, the word "clause" is valuable. The following groups of words are clauses:
the ship sank (independent)
just before the iceberg struck the ship (dependent)
the first lifeboat in the water was only half full (independent)

The following groups of words are not clauses:

the ship sinking (participle phrase)
to understand the sinking (infinitive phrase)
its bow rising out of the water (participle phrase)


An independent clause is a clause that can stand alone as a sentence. Examples include

The pumps failed.
The rumblings arose from the shifting of five grand pianos.
Many people on board did not even notice the collision with the iceberg.


A dependent clause, sometimes called a subordinate clause, cannot stand alone as a sentence. These clauses begin with subordinate conjunctions. Examples of dependent clauses are shown in boldface:

When the ship collided with the iceberg, many people did not take notice.
If the ship had struck the iceberg head on, the ship probably would not have sunk so quickly.
No one determined for sure why the captain had sailed the ship at so high a speed.



conjunction:

a word that joins words, phrases, or clauses. There are three types of conjunctions: coordinating, correlative, and subordinating.


Coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, nor ) join words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank. Generally, these are the words that people mean when they say the word "conjunction." Examples include

The ship lay in two sections--stern and bow.
The rumblings arose from the shifting of five grand pianos or the sliding of hundreds of trunks.
The ship was thought virtually unsinkable, but sank in less than three hours.


Correlative conjunctions are simply coordinating conjunctions used in pairs (both...and, not only...but (also), either...or, neither...nor ) to join words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank. Examples include

Neither the builder nor the captain had expected a collision of this sort.
Not only did water enter from the gash in the hull but also from open portholes now below the waterline.


Subordinating conjunctions are words such as because, although, and when that join dependent (or subordinating) clauses to independent clauses. Examples include

When the ship sank, she carried with her more than fifteen hundred people.
Because the steel was so brittle, the iceberg cracked and split the hull.



either-or fallacy:

logical fallacy in which the writer states that only two alternatives exist when in fact there are more than two.



equivocation:

logical fallacy in which the writer presents an assertion that falsely relies on the use of a single term in two different senses ("Their position on nuclear power is right-as far right as you can get").



ethos:

the Greek word for "character." In argumentation, this term refers to an appeal to character or credibility. For example, a scientist arguing for the use of dogs in medical experiments might inform the audience that he or she loves dogs and is, in fact, a dog owner. In doing so, the scientist seeks to increase his or her standing or credibility with the audience, particularly those who are dog lovers.



false analogy:

logical fallacy in which the writer uses the assumption that because two things are alike in some respects, they are alike in all respects.



false authority:

logical fallacy in which the writer uses the assumption that an expert in one field is also an expert in another.



false cause:

logical fallacy in which the writer makes the assumption that because one event follows another, the first is the cause of the second.



guilt by association:

logical fallacy in which the writer uses an unfair attempt to make someone responsible for the beliefs or actions of others.



hasty generalization:

logical fallacy in which the writer uses a generalization based on too little evidence or on exceptional or biased evidence.



logos:

the Greek word for "logic." In argumentation, this term refers to an appeal by the writer to the logic of audience. Examples of logos in an argument would include deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, statistics, and referenced facts.



modifier:

a word, phrase, or clause that help define a word or group of words. Examples would include an adjective or adverb. Misplaced modifiers then are modifiers that because of their position define an unintended word or group of words. An example (in boldface) would be as follows:
Hurling at 100 kilometers per hour, the scientist tested the solar mirror for hailstone damage. (what was hurling at 100 kilometers per hour?)

A correction would be as follows:

To test the solar mirrors for hailstone damage, the scientist hurled stones at the mirrors. The stones traveled at speeds up to 100 kilometers per hour.



non sequitur:

logical fallacy in which the writer uses a statement that does not follow logically from what has just been said--in other words, a conclusion that does not follow from the premises.



oxymoron


Definition seemingly contradictory words that have the startling effect of a paradox (poor little rich girl, or conspicuously absent)
Part of Speech noun
Origin Greek: oxys, sharp keen, and moros foolish.
Example Here's an oxymoron: All-natural smokes for health nuts--Wall Street Journal, headline, p. A1, 4/14/97.



oversimplification:

logical fallacy in which the writer uses a statement or argument that leaves out relevant considerations about an issue.



pathos:

the Greek word for "emotion." In argumentation, this term refers to an appeal by the writer to the emotions of the audience. For example, someone arguing against medical experiments being performed on dogs might describe the suffering that the animal experiences during an experiment. This description would be pathos.



phrase:

a group of words that does not contain both a subject and a verb and that functions as a single part of speech, such as a noun, adjective, or adverb. Examples are as follows:
Water entered through the hull. (prepositional phrase functioning as an adverb)
The lookouts scanning the ocean did not see the iceberg until it was too late. (participle phrase functioning as an adjective)
The crew fired flares to signal other ships. (infinitive phrase functioning as an adverb)
Spotting an iceberg is more difficult in calm seas than in choppy seas. (gerundial phrase functioning as a noun)



preposition:

a part of speech that indicates a relationship such as time, manner, or place between its object and another word in the sentence. Examples of prepositional phrases appear below (the prepositions are in boldface):

within a few hours
of the big bang
outside these regions
according to experts

Recognizing these phrases is useful for understanding how sentences are put together. The following table presents words or phrases commonly used as prepositions:

about besides inside since
above between into through
across beyond like throughout
after by near to
against concerning of toward
along despite off under
among down on underneath
around during onto until
at except out up
before except for outside upon
behind for over up to
below from past with
beneath in regarding within
beside in lieu of round without




red herring:

logical fallacy in which the writer dodges the real issue by drawing attention to an irrelevant issue (sometimes called "ignoring the question").



run-on:

two or more independent clauses incorrectly joined, usually by a comma. This term is often referred to as a comma splice. Examples are as follows:
The chamber leaked the radiation, the surrounding area was contaminated.
The chamber leaked the radiation, however, no one was seriously affected.
The chamber contained all the radiation, therefore, no one was injured.

Possible corrections to these run-ons would be as follows (boldface terms indicate changes):

The chamber leaked the radiation, and the surrounding area was contaminated.
Although the chamber leaked the radiation, no one was seriously affected.
The chamber contained all the radiation. Therefore, no one was injured.



slippery slope:

logical fallacy in which the writer makes the assumption that if one thing is allowed, it will be the first step in a downward spiral.



Last updated 5/98
http://writing.eng.vt.edu/other/dictionary.html